Introduction: Financial constraints of power to travel severely impact journalists in Palestine, including poor quality reports concerning unprofessional and unethical practices. The major insecurities posed by financial constraints are economic, personal, organizational, societal, infrastructural, and geographic.
Difficulties Palestinian journalists face when traveling to cover news: Journalists in Palestine face increased threats as they cover regions with three parties – Israel, Palestine, and militants – having different objectives. The primary and recurring challenges include abuse and harassment, lack of recognition, and targeting and killings.
The impact of financial constraints:
- Economic security – financial limitations incapacitated journalists’ ability to cover and report on viral events as they lacked funds for basic needs like gasoline, or they were working many jobs at a time
- Personal security – journalists need safety equipment, including protective vests or shields and helmets, to reduce physical harm that journalists encounter when covering aggressive military actions to enhance their security. The increasing military involvement and the crashing Palestinian economy have disabled journalists from covering the events without protective equipment
- Geographic security – the geographic insecurity inhibiting freedom of movement is an impact of the financial limitations of Palestinian journalists.
- Organizational security – lack of organizational security relating to financial constraints is an ethical dilemma among Palestinian journalists, raising concern for the integrity and professionalism of their work
- Societal security – resorting to advocacy by some journalists to serve the challenges and public interest of their community by directly addressing propaganda has limitations in the geographic areas to cover and on the platforms to share their reports
- Infrastructural security – destroyed infrastructure severely affects the overall financial stability of journalists and means to access different locations for coverage of news
Summary: Solving the journalists’ issues will be more challenging in the future as most media organizations in Palestine are owned and controlled by the government, while the private ones are controlled by organizations that fund them through advertisements and other benefits.
Introduction
Insecurity and risk factors have significantly focused on violence against news media and journalists as they work in insecure democracies and conflict zones. Global press rights groups, scholars, and other global organizations have continuously documented an increase in insecurity as journalists conduct their work. [1] For several years, journalists in the Gaza Strip and West Bank have faced many occupational challenges involving independent reporting. For instance, the Israeli authorities have restricted most journalists from using telecommunication technologies.[2] Additionally, most Palestinian media target military activities and operations, which have caused face censorship from the neighboring Israeli government, Fatah in the West Bank, and Hamas in Gaza.
Today, journalism in Palestine still faces self-censorship, information control, and censorship.[3] Different authorities control Palestinian media outlets with conflicting objectives and demands. The dilemma to satisfy the demands of the Palestinian ministry of information authority or Israeli censors has made media groups and journalists undermine journalism values and ethics to retain their publishing rights.[4] The absence of competent and critical work by media and journalists has led to citizen journalism supported by social media. As Israel imposed media blackouts on Palestine, most Palestinians have resorted to repackaging, commenting on, and distributing news and events content on the many social media platforms.[5]
Issues faced by journalists in Palestine, including arrests, physical and mental abuse, censorships, and denied freedom of movement, are more comprehensive in the security frameworks.[6] In 2018, Israeli forces opened fire on Palestinian protestors killing approximately 150 people and injuring 10,000 others including 115 paramedics and 1849 children.[7] Among the injured and dead were journalists covering the protest. Two journalists died while 16 suffered serious injuries despite wearing press vests. In July and August of 2018, roughly seven Palestinian journalists were arrested and detained in West Bank while conducting journalistic duties.[8] Palestinian journalists face significant challenges including increased risks of death and acting unethically to retain publishing rights. Correspondingly, financial constraints of power to travel severely impact journalists in Palestine, including poor quality reports concerning unprofessional and unethical practices.
Difficulties Palestinian journalists face when traveling to cover news
Journalists in Palestine experience increasing risks as they perform their duties. There is a dilemma and feeling trapped between the conflicting objectives of the state and Israeli actors.[9] Local and international media and journalists fear for their security while chasing to cover in different locations as challenges increase when accessing borders and checkpoints. Working in an environment without law and order and minimum security exposes oneself to the highest degree of risk.[10] The intense forces from the Israeli military and Palestinian government are intended to intimidate, threaten, and abuse journalistic activities to reduce their work’s impact and silence them completely.
Abuse and harassment
The Palestinian authorities in Gaza and the West Bank arrest, abuse, and criminally charge activists and journalists expressing peaceful criticism of authorities and the government.[11] While Palestine assumed an obligation to ratify treaties that protect free speech, the crackdown violated it. The Palestinian government has resorted to intimidation, harassment, and physical abuse methods against anyone who criticizes or supports the action directly or indirectly. According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), West Bank and Gaza regions have several cases involving security officers arresting and questioning journalists while physically abusing and torturing them.[12] According to interviews conducted by HRW, journalists and other activists stated that security officers made them maintain uncomfortable positions for many hours, beat and kicked them, deprived them of proper food and sleep, and hosed them with cold and hot water.[13] Torture and crackdowns violate legal commitments, including the Convention Against Torture and the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights. Correspondingly, the Israeli military has continuously abused journalists in Palestine. During coverage of critical situations between Israeli forces and activists, the military abuses and intimidates journalists by firing stun grenades, rubber-coated bullets, and gas canisters.[14]
Journalists in Palestine are forbidden from reporting on specific stories and issues. In 2015, there were approximately 192 incidents involving Palestinian authorities infringing journalists’ rights to expression.[15] Journalists were summoned, interrogated, physically assaulted, detained, and arrested. The cases account for a 68% increase from 2014.[16] Journalists’ abuses reported by media freedom groups included seizing passwords to social media accounts, consistent warnings to end government criticism, and torture.[17] The intimidation through abuse and harassment is consistent with cases involving the Israeli military and Palestinian government.
Targeting and killing of journalists
Most documentation covers photographers, reporters, and video journalists being injured by live fire, tear gas, physical altercations, and missile strike while on duty. However, there is the terror of killings involving journalists related to Israeli military and Palestinian government operations concerning intimidation and abuse. Approximately 19 journalists have died in the Israeli-Pakistan territories since 1992.[18] Israeli military brunt violence is responsible for the killings of the 16 Palestinian journalists in the Gaza Strip and West Bank. International journalists targeted and killed in Palestine include Shireen Abu Akleh, Yasser Murtaja, James Miller, and Simone Camilli. Shireen Abu Akleh made intrepid reports across Ramallah, Palestine earning her a household name. At 51, she was shot and killed by an Israeli sniper, according to eyewitness accounts and Palestinian officials.[19] Due to the conflicting objectives between the Israeli military and the Palestinian government, the Israeli government argued that Palestinian militants were responsible. Yasser Murtaja, 30 years old, was killed in 2018 while covering large protests across Gaza’s border. Israel’s defense minister argued that Murtaja was Hama’s military wing member.[20] However, Murtaja’s colleagues denied the accusation implying that Israeli should take responsibility for his murder as it was a clear target.
Additionally, Simone Camilli – a 35-year-old Italian journalist – was killed in an explosion by local police.[21] The explosion took the lives of two other journalists covering the war between Hamas and Israel. James Miller, a 35-year-old British journalist, was killed by the Israeli military as they opened fire with a tank. Miller and his crew had filmed a documentary in a subject’s home.
Lack of recognition
Most journalists face challenges from government restrictions and control. However, journalism challenges in Palestine are complicated and multi-leveled as two vital players are involved, Palestine and Israel. Palestinian journalists face a lack of recognition challenge with Israel while conducting their duties.[22] While Israel claims to be the only democratic nation in the middle east, it has never recognized a Palestinian journalist covering media events for a Palestinian media organization. While the only press card available is generated and distributed by the Israeli government press office, Israeli military authorities do not issue press cards to any Palestinian journalist.[23] Without a press card, journalists operating in Palestine are denied access to military and government press conferences and locations, covering official events, and accessing checkpoints.[24] The travel restrictions are a barrier for Palestinian journalists to travel in and from Jerusalem and to or from Gaza.[25] Correspondingly, traveling to and from Palestine has been restricted to Palestinian journalists, making the conflict of power an intense challenge for any journalist covering events in Palestine. Israeli forces also lack recognition of well-established media in Palestine. The military has been involved in infrastructure destruction, including radio stations and television satellites which undermines journalistic operations.[26] The Israeli government, Palestine government, and militant leaders pose risks to journalists as they fear revealing the truth.
The Israeli military was involved in the bombing of Gaza International airport, Rafah.[27] Israel fears that the airport could be used to smuggle weapons and conduct terror attacks on their land. The remaining ways for Palestinians to leave Gaza are crossing the southern border, which Egypt controls, or traveling through Israel.[28] Among the Palestinians are the journalists who face challenges crossing the checkpoints without press cards, and only a limited number acquire permission.
Discussion: Impact of financial constraints
Financial limitations have a significant impact relating to the power to travel among journalists in Palestine. Journalists face already existing challenges – abuse, harassment, targeting, killings, and lack of recognition – from the Israeli and Palestinian governments. Financial challenges have made journalists more vulnerable to the differing objectives of the Israeli military and government, Palestinian internal security defense and government, and militant leaders. The financial aspect escalates the challenges by causing broader and more complicated personal, economic, organizational, geographic, and infrastructural security problems that inhibit effective journalistic operations.
Economic security
Economic security tackles and addresses other infringements enabling the enjoyment of freedom from want.[29] It incorporates an individual’s ability to acquire and sustain the basic livelihood provisions including but not limited to shelter, food, and quality healthcare. Economic security forms the basic human security with utmost significance for short-term and long-term sustainability. In the case of Palestinian journalists, this paper conceptualizes economic security as journalists’ ability to acquire and provide basic necessities for themselves and their families to meet daily needs. As a vital aspect of human security, economic security is related to working effectively to earn a living wage.[30] Financial constraints among journalists in Palestine have caused a decline in the overall quality of journalism. According to some journalists, either themselves or their organizations faced challenges in procuring the necessary equipment for journalistic roles.[31] They faced economic constraints that inhibited their ability to conduct any investigations that required financial resources and time.
Correspondingly, financial limitations incapacitated journalists’ ability to cover and report on viral events as they lacked adequate funds for basics like gasoline or were working many jobs at a time.[32] The financial challenge eliminated the production of meaningful journalistic work. Regarding the Palestinian case study, the financial limitation has negative implications on how journalists can travel from one place to another for comprehensive reports. Most journalists rely on media companies’ remuneration to survive economically. Correspondingly, media organizations have maintained the role of providing information and making profits from advertisements.[33] In that regard, journalists who work under a particular media organization risk losing their jobs if they fail to support the reporting agenda of the sponsors or ownership.[34] In the long-term, financial limitations affect journalism’s truth and ethical stand due to the bias caused by political loyalty or specific organizations.
Threats regarding economic security on individual journalists emerge from inadequate salaries for sustainability, especially in areas like West Bank and Gaza Strip, where the economy is depressed.[35] Media houses sometimes experience economic pressures from top advertisers, including commercial companies and official entities like governorates and municipalities. Journalism organizations are threatened with the removal of funding when exposing corruption related to a particular party.[36] The control of media by some organizations and governments raises concern about the quality of journalism delivered while revealing how financial constraints limit the quality.
Personal security
Personal security takes three dimensions: security of a person based on the rule of law and natural laws and humanitarianism and actions concerning strengthening international laws on war crimes and genocide by eliminating weapons that pose a danger to humanitarian interventions and civilians.[37] The other aspect is the general idea of social justice. The dimensions primarily focus on the challenges related to protecting human rights. In Palestine, especially in the Gaza Strip and West Bank regions, violence threatens journalists’ right to feel secure and free from threats of harm and actual harm.[38]
Palestinian journalists are exposed to personal insecurities in different ways, including direct targets from different parties – the Israeli military, militants, and the Palestinian government – when covering incidents of injustice and violence.[39] To enhance their security, journalists need safety equipment, including protective vests or shields and helmets to reduce physical harm journalists encounter when covering aggressive military actions. As Palestine encounters economic downturns, most journalists, including fixers, cannot afford the required equipment as they are already facing economic insecurity. According to the World Bank, the economic growth and Palestinian Administration revenues remain below average due to access and movement restrictions.[40] Israel controls Palestinian external trade making it subject to high costs on nontariff barriers that lessen competitiveness. With the increasing military involvement and the crashing Palestinian economy, journalists cannot travel to cover the events without protective equipment. The financial limitations have increased the risk of personal insecurities, which can be reflected in the killings of different journalists as the Israeli military opened fire on protestors.
Psychological stress related to the security and safety of an individual is also a vital aspect of personal security.[41] Debilitation of professional work is significantly relevant to Palestinian journalists’ security. While on duty, the violence involved in the coverage of the events affects journalists’ psychological status, and they may start to be pulled by victims’ concerns.[42] As reflected in economic insecurity, personal security also poses negative implications for the quality of journalism. Personal insecurity reflects financial limitations’ impact as journalists fear the severity of harm without protective equipment.
Geographic security
Geographic security involves the security of people to move freely and occupy space within particular recognized limits.[43] However, Palestinians cannot move freely on their land, and journalists are obstructed to cover stories – an implication of geographic security limitations. The occupied Palestinian territory’s political, physical, and administrative fragmentation is an Israeli instrument to entrench control over Palestinian resources and land.[44] For instance, the West Bank has been divided into regions A, B, and C, East Jerusalem is isolated, and Gaza is blockaded from West Bank.[45] Israel controls and exploits Palestinian natural resources, while the settlements in West Bank are used to control resources and limit movement.
The dominance of Israel in Palestine’s geographic region is employed using demographic control and suppressing resistance. Israeli military controls the population registry allowing it to impose control and demographic fragmentation.[46] Palestinian resistance is suppressed using recurrent military assaults, collective punishment, intense use of force, imprisonment, detentions, and excessive arbitrary arrests. Correspondingly, journalists performing their duties are harassed and abused as the Israeli military tries to evade responsibility for the inhuman treatment and human rights violations. The policies interact and complement each other, forming a controlled and dominated matrix.[47]
Some journalists argue that they do not have a challenge with mobility challenges, but they try and pass restricted areas to cover events.[48] After violating the Israeli military’s policies on Palestinian land, journalists are illegally arrested and detained for long hours. According to a TV reporter and seven other journalists, they were arrested and detained to punish and intimidate their activities.[49] The eight journalists were detained for seven days before being bailed out.[50] With the current financial position of Palestine, journalists face financial constraints that limit their reach beyond borders as they lack adequate funds for a bailout when arrested. The geographic insecurity posed by the Israeli and Palestinian governments also impact financial limitations on many Palestinian journalists who are already struggling economically.
Organisational security
Media organizations conducting journalistic activities in volatile areas like Palestine are responsible for reporting and protecting their reporters’ psychological and physical well-being.[51] The responsibility accounts for the provision of safety and security protocols in the field and the newsroom, including safety equipment, digital security training, and general safety training.[52] Many news organizations in the terror regions of Gaza and the West Bank ensure that journalists have taken and are equipped with physical security measures such as secure transportation, safety training, and equipment, including armor, armored vehicles, and helmets.[53] However, with the crisis in Palestine and the corrupt systems, it can be deduced that most media organizations operating effectively across a particular region are directed by the parties involved. For instance, the Israeli military has continuously denied Palestinian journalists access to press cards[54] , while the Palestinian government has restricted other foreign journalists. The quality of the operations by the allowed journalists in the regions is questionable and poses ethical dilemmas regarding the position and freedom of journalism.
On the other hand, some Palestinian journalists argue that their organizations failed to provide security measures, while others thought it was irrelevant.[55] Journalists can report on events according to the organization’s mission and its journalistic principles, including financial and political considerations that guide curbing, censoring, and changing coverage.[56] It indicates that most media houses cover events considering their loyalty or financial advantages from particular parties. For instance, Palestinian news organisations partner with telecommunications companies to publish advertisements.[57] It impedes all news media from objectively addressing any challenges and issues concerning the telecommunication sector.
Financial limitations are a significant cause of incompetence among media organizations. While some journalists have a sense of professionalism, it creates a sense of organizational insecurity due to the conflicting agenda and organizational mission.[58] The lack of organizational security – directly related to financial constraints – is an ethical dilemma among Palestinian journalists, raising concern for the integrity and professionalism of their work. Instead of covering events as they occur, the reporting is guided by political agendas, sources of funding, and partisan objectives. Journalism in Palestine is affected by organizational insecurity as journalist lack the power to travel and cover more expansive areas as the financial instability of their organizations is directed toward different interests.
Societal Security
Societal security is the perception of being supported and free to participate in community events. The volatile nature of Palestine with the ongoing war requires a journalist to have a sense of community and family belonging as a source of support. However, controlling media organizations and journalists by other parties undermine the role of journalism in the community. Today big tech organizations like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have colluded with Israel to censor Palestinians.[59]
While social media platforms could be the best and most effective in sharing the covered news in the Palestine war, journalists still face challenges and dilemmas concerning a dependable and neutral channel or party. As some journalists resorted to advocacy in serving their community’s challenges and the public interest by directly addressing propaganda, they are limited in the geographic areas to cover and on the platforms to share their reports.[60] The main challenge becomes a financial limitation to cover larger geographic areas and events as a private journalist constructing societal security.
Infrastructural security
While infrastructure should be public property, the case of Palestine can be conceptualized to acknowledge that public resources can become subject to political orientation.[61] The Israeli military has continuously denied Palestinian civilians and journalists access to their infrastructure. The forces have continued attacks and destructions of radio stations and TV satellites[62]. Similarly, Israeli forces targeted and destroyed several commercial and economic facilities that Palestine depends on economically. Additionally, the military is responsible for the destruction of Gaza International airport. Journalists who had to work several jobs and fund their journalism have been disabled as organizations and companies are being bombed. The limited movements, economic downturn, and destroyed infrastructure severely affect the financial stability of journalists and means to access different locations for news coverage.
Summary
While the financial constraints on the power to travel among Palestinian journalists are primarily viewed in the economic security, other insecurities accompany it – personal, organizational, infrastructural, and geographic. The intersection of the factors is also embedded in the severe challenges facing news coverage personnel like abuse, harassment, killings, and lack of recognition by the Israeli or Palestinian governments. The challenges faced by journalists in Palestine cannot be adequately met as the role and duties of the personnel are part of the events. The safety and future of journalists in such volatile and terror-driven environments pose vital concerns for their mental stability and future relationships with their families and communities.
This paper has identified professional dilemmas journalists face while conducting their roles driven by politically and financially affiliated organizations. Financial limitations have become an ethical compromise as individuals and organizations focus on sustainability over integrity and professionalism. While journalistic work still holds an essential role in society, the unethical events in areas requiring the highest degree of professionalism, like Palestine, pose different implications on the quality and dependability of reports for practical solutions to problems. Journalism should be based on transparency without any alterations and control from third parties. However, solving the problem will be more challenging as most media organizations in Palestine are owned and controlled by the government, while the private ones are controlled by organizations that fund them through advertisements and other benefits.
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[1] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, “Human Security As A Conceptual Framework: The Case Of Palestinian Journalists”, Journalism Studies, 20.13 (2018), 1-22 https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670x.2018.1543555.
[2] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 2
[3] Ibid, p. 3
[4] Ibid
[5] Ibid
[6] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, pp. 3-4
[7] Article 19, “Journalists In Palestine Face Huge Risks – ARTICLE 19”, ARTICLE 19, 2022 https://www.article19.org/reader/global-expression-report-2018-19/regional-overviews/middle-east-and-northern-africa-regional-overview/journalists-in-palestine-face-huge-risks/ [Accessed 30 September 2022].
[8] Article 19, “Journalists In Palestine Face Huge Risks”
[9] Article 19, “Journalists In Palestine Face Huge Risks”
[10] Kiyya Baloch and Kenneth Andresen, “Reporting In Conflict Zones In Pakistan: Risks And Challenges For Fixers”, Media And Communication, 8.1 (2020), 37-46 https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v8i1.2514.
[11] Human Rights Watch, “Palestine: Crackdown On Journalists, Activists”, Human Rights Watch | HRW, 2022 https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/08/30/palestine-crackdown-journalists-activists [Accessed 1 October 2022].
[12] Human Rights Watch, “Palestine: Crackdown On Journalists, Activists”
[13] Ibid
[14] International Federation of Journalists, “Intimidation And Violence Against Palestinian Journalists Must End Now / FIJ”, Ifj.Org, 2014 https://www.ifj.org/fr/salle-de-presse/nouvelles/detail/category/press-releases/article/intimidation-and-violence-against-palestinian-journalists-must-end-now.html
[15] Human Rights Watch, “Palestine: Crackdown On Journalists, Activists”
[16] Ibid
[17] Ibid
[18] Miriam Berger, “Stories Of 5 Journalists Killed Covering Israeli-Palestinian Conflict”, The Washington Post, 2022 https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/05/12/israel-palestine-journalists-killed/
[19] Miriam Berger, “Stories Of 5 Journalists Killed Covering Israeli-Palestinian Conflict”
[20] Ibid
[21] Ibid
[22] Daoud Kuttab, “Challenges Facing Palestinian Journalists”, Jordan Times, 2016 https://www.jordantimes.com/opinion/daoud-kuttab/challenges-facing-palestinian-journalists
[23] Daoud Kuttab, “Challenges Facing Palestinian Journalists”
[24] Adalah, “Adalah Appeals Against Israeli Government Press Agency Refusal To Issue Press Card To Palestinian – Adalah”, Adalah.Org, 2022 https://www.adalah.org/en/content/view/7117
[25] Daoud Kuttab, “Challenges Facing Palestinian Journalists”
[26] Ibid
[27] Philip Reeves, “Gaza’s Shattered Airport, Once A Symbol Of Sovereignty”, NPR.Org, 2014 https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/08/31/344329313/gazas-shattered-airport-once-a-symbol-of-sovereignty
[28] Philip Reeves, “Gaza’s Shattered Airport”
[29] Siew Mun Tang, “Rethinking Economic Security In A Globalized World”, Contemporary Politics, 21.1 (2015), 40-52 https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2014.993910.
[30] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 9
[31] Ibid
[32] Ibid
[33] Matt Carlson, “When News Sites Go Native: Redefining The Advertising–Editorial Divide In Response To Native Advertising”, Journalism, 16.7 (2014), 849-865 https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884914545441.
[34] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 9
[35] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 9
[36] Ibid, p. 10
[37] Janusz Gierszewski, “Personal Security Within The Human Security Paradigm”, Security Dimensions, 23 (2017), 51-66 https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.8242.
[38] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 7
[39] Ibid
[40] World Bank, “The Palestinian Economy Will Continue To Operate Below Potential Without Concrete Policy Actions”, The World Bank Organization, 2022 https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/05/09/the-palestinian-economy-will-continue-to-operate-below-potential-without-concrete-policy-actions
[41] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 7
[42] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 7
[43] Ibid, p. 11
[44] Reliefweb, “Palestine Under Occupation III: Mapping Israel’S Policies And Practices And Their Economic Repercussions In The Occupied Palestinian Territory”, Reliefweb, 2022 https://reliefweb.int/report/occupied-palestinian-territory/palestine-under-occupation-iii-mapping-israels-policies-and-practices-and-their-economic-repercussions-occupied-palestinian-territory
[45] Reliefweb, “Palestine Under Occupation”
[46] Ibid
[47] Reliefweb, “Palestine Under Occupation”
[48] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 11
[49] Ibid
[50] Ibid
[51] Jeannine E. Relly and Celeste González de Bustamante, “Silencing Mexico”, The International Journal Of Press/Politics, 19.1 (2013), 108-131 https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161213509285.
[52] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 8
[53] Ibid
[54] Daoud Kuttab, “Challenges Facing Palestinian Journalists”
[55] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 8
[56] Ibid
[57] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 8
[58] Ibid
[59] Jonathan Cook, “Social Media’s Erasure Of Palestinians Is A Grim Warning For Our Future”, Middle East Eye, 2020 https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/palestine-facebook-twitter-google-erasure-warning [Accessed 1 October 2022].
[60] Carol B. Schwalbe and others, p. 8
[61] Ibid, p. 12
[62] Daoud Kuttab, “Challenges Facing Palestinian Journalists”
